Tips on Report Writing: All you needed to know on successful report writing

Report writing can come in different shapes, depending on your topic and supervisor’s requirements. It can also contain all or just part of report writing components. We will give the full list of requirements for successful report writing, and will also provide you with professional help on writing a report.
1. How to Write a Report. The Letter of Transmittal
General guidelines:
This is a separate document that accompanies report writing. It is usually brief. By sending a transmittal letter you let your recipient know that you are sending a report, and will also give him an idea about what is being sent and what are your basic requirements.
Our advice on writing a report:
This document has to be written in accordance with the letter etiquette. Be sure to include address, a name of your recipient, and all the important information. Also, end a transmittal letters with a one-sentence paragraph that establishes goodwill by thanking or complimenting the recipient.
Do not include a transmittal letter unless specifically requested to do so.
2. How to Write a Report. The Title Page
General guidelines:
There are four main pieces of information that have to be included into the title page:- the report title;- the name of the person, company, or organization for whom the report has been prepared;- the name of the author and the company or university which originated the report;- the date the report was completed. A title page might also include contract number, a security classification, or a copy number depending on the nature of the report you are writing.
Our advice on writing a report:
A tutor might have a specific request as to your title page. Ask him.
3. How to Write a Report. Acknowledgments
General guidelines:
Good report writing includes a page of gratitude to those who helped the writer in his process: his supervisor, teachers/professors, librarians, family, etc.
Our advice on writing a report:
Make them look sincere. Don’t just say, “Thank you…” and give the list of names, but refer to each one separately and thank him/her for something specific.
4. How to Write a Report. The Summary Abstract
General guidelines:
The Abstract communicates the scope of your paper and the topics discussed to your reader, and, in doing so, it facilitates research. When doing a summary of your report writing, go over the main parts of it (Introduction, Body, etc.), and summarize each of them in one sentence.
Our advice on writing a report:
It’s better to write Summary Abstract last. By this time you will know the content of you report, and will be able to outline its most important features.
To make a good outline, ask yourself, why would another researcher be interested in this research, or what should a reader be sure to know about the research?
5. How to Write a Report. The Table of Contents
General guidelines:
The table of contents is a reflection of report writing structure. Sections and subsections should be numbered and titled in such a way as to help the reader find his way through your report.- list all headings and subheadings (excluding the title page, table of contents, and other preliminary matter), giving page numbers for the first page of each section;- reproduce the headings and numbering exactly from the body of the report;- include the full titles of the appendices.
Our advice on writing a report:
Make a draft table first. It will help you to organize your materials and thoughts. Remember that it can be altered during the process of writing.
Dot leaders from the heading to its page number make navigation around the Table of Contents easier for you and your readers
6. How to Write a Report. The List of Figures, Tables, Illustrations
General guidelines:
The figures/tables/illustrations should be numbered in order with the chapter number and the figure/table/illustration number within that chapter. When there are six or more figures, tables and illustrations, they are listed on a separate page with their corresponding page numbers in the text. If only a few exist, then they are included in the table of contents’ page.
Our advice on writing reports:
In some report writings a correct sequence is essential: 1) list of figures, 2) list of tables, 3) list of illustrations. Don’t make a page break between them.
7. How to Write a Report. The Executive Summary
General guidelines:
This part of report writing is usually no more than one page in length, and includes:
- the purpose of the report- background to the report- sources of information- main findings- conclusions and recommendations.
Our advice on writing a report:
While abstracts are brief summaries that address a technical audience, executive summaries represent report writing in such a way that it could stand on its own and would make sense to a non-technical audience.
8. How to Write a Report. The Introduction
General guidelines:
The Introduction should be a brief but thorough discussion of the context of the problem. A typical introduction is about 1½ to 2 pages long. It includes:- purpose or objective of writing the report;- background information (for example a brief history of the organization, context of topic or problem);- literature review (what researches have already been made in this field)- scope, that is, the size or extent of study, amount of data collected, time frames, focus of data collection or discussion (for example, a department or whole organization);- methodology, that is, the kind of data used (for example, who was interviewed, what type of material was referred to);- assumptions and limitations, (for example, given the above material, any assumptions that were made and any limitations placed on the material included in the report);- plan that briefly overviews the argument, framework or logical structure of report writing.
Our advice on writing a report:
Don’t begin your Introduction with a sentence that is either too broad, or too narrow. Be specific.
If you include illustrations into your introduction, you will help the readers get a better understanding of the context.
Before writing about the purpose, make sure you understand it clearly. If you don’t, your reader won’t, either.
When giving literature review, try to make comparisons. Introduce two different opinions on one topic, and out of them make your own point of view/conclusion.
9. How to Write a Report. The Body
General guidelines:
The Body of the report writing is the main part that includes all the facts and materials essential for the understanding of the problem. It usually has three sections:- Theories, models, and hypotheses. This section is optional. By giving it, you introduce the theoretical basis for your project;- Materials and methods. This is a part where you describe (and illustrate) the materials used, and give a step-by-step report on how you were completing your task;- Results. This section summarizes your efforts and gives information about what you discovered, invented, or confirmed through your research.
Our advice on writing a report:
If you made a mistake during any of your steps, write about it, too. It will show the depth of your research, for you had to correct it.
Results have to be presented in a straightforward way.
Tables and illustrations are the best way to demonstrate your materials and results. By providing them, you secure your reader’s understanding of a problem.
To make the parts of your Body paragraph fit together, give a short summary of every sub-section, and provide a smooth transition from one part to another.
10. How to Write a Report. The Conclusion
General guidelines:
This is the last part of your report writing. Sum up the main points and refer to any underlying theme. If any questions or issues remain unresolved, mention them in the conclusion. Write in a brief, concise manner, for your readers are already familiar with everything you talk about.
Our advice on writing a report:
Don’t introduce any new information.
Before writing a conclusion, make a draft of it. Go over your report writing, and underline all the important information that has to be repeated. Your conclusion has to stress the importance of the research.
Make a smooth transition from the Body to the Conclusion.
11. How to Write a Report. Recommendations
General guidelines:
Give directions/propositions on how a problem you’ve investigated can be solved. List them clearly, and rely on the materials that you used.
Our advice on writing a report:
A numbered list is always a good idea. It gives quick access to your recommendations, and doesn’t send your readers wandering around the section.
12. How to Write a Report. References
General guidelines:
List all the sources of information that you used during your report writing. Use an alphabetical order.
Our advice on writing a report:
To keep track of numerous sources, begin writing them down in the very beginning of your report writing. There is nothing worse than going back and desperately looking for information.
13. How to Write a Report. Appendices
General guidelines:
Include data tables, background calculations, specification lists for equipment used, details of experimental configuration, and other information needed for completeness, but which would bog down the discussion in the body of the report. Your Appendices must each have a footer with numbered pages for that appendix.
Our advice on writing a report:
Include in an appendix any supporting evidence, such as tables, which is not possible to incorporate in the main body of the report.
Stuck on writing a report? Essay? Any other paper? Take your time and look through our report writing tips if you wish to accomplish the paper on your own. Custom-Writing.org is a custom writing service that provides writing help in any field of study. By purchasing a paper you can finally kick back and relax while we are doing all the work for you! Pay with PayPal or any other payment method available! Buying papers is easy and efficient! Buy custom papers now and have your paper taken care of!

Communication cycle

Introduction

Observation: most of the (declarative) knowledge people acquire in their youth and apply in their ordinary life is not devised by themselves but fabricated by wise men in past and present. This knowledge is transferred by means of communication.The purpose of CommunSENS is to build a knowledge engine that can be a node in this communication cycle.A nice example of knowledge transfer by means of communication is given in figure 1.1. At the start of the dialog both children have a certain knowledge state. When the communication cycle stops, their knowledge state has changed. Janneke knows that Jip has four uncles. Jip knows that Janneke has an uncle with a beard.It is important to note that the knowledge state of the children is fully scalable. To put it into the words of a computer programmer: the knowledge is added at run-time, without stopping and rebuilding the system or generating additional code.

The classic physiology of the communication cycle.

The success of the species homo sapiens is caused by its ability to accumulate knowledge by means of the communication cycle. This cycle can be associated with certain parts in the human brain: the hardware. The next figure gives a general idea of these relevant parts.

The cycle starts with a knowledge carrier: verbal or written utterances. In the case of Jip and Janneke such an utterance is for example the sentence: 'I have an uncle'. This sentence reaches Jip's ear and is transferred to an area in the brain called Wernicke's area. In that area the individual words of the sentence are recognized. In the same area the structure of the utterance is decoded. For example, in the utterance 'I have four uncles' it is important to know that 'four' relates to 'uncles' and not to 'have'. The operation in which words get the right position is called parsing. After parsing it is possible to store the contents of the utterance as symbolic knowledge somewhere in the brain.
When Jip has stored the information about Janneke's uncle he can add his own information to it. Somewhere in Jip's brain there is symbolic information stored about four uncles. This symbolic information is retrieved and processed in Broca's area. There it is put into words (naming). Next these words are structured in a sentence (phrasing). After that, a signal is given to the motor cortex in order to articulate the utterance: 'I have four of them. Four uncles'. This triggers the next stage in the communication cycle.

Up till now we discussed the communication between 2 persons at the same time. However, knowledge transfer is not limited to the present but it also links to the past. An important part of our knowledge is invented by previous generations. The transfer mechanism is much the same. The main difference is that time restricts the feedback.There is no way that Aristotle could have communicated with Socrates or that we can communicate with Plato. However, the idea's of these men has come to us and they profoundly influence our daily lives.

The architecture of CommunSENS.

The main architecture of CommunSENS is a direct derivative of the classical physiology of the communication cycle. To let the computer be a node in the communication cycle it must be equipped with a parser, a storage medium and a phraser.

The Importance of Non-verbal Communication in Professional Interpretation

The choice of the subject of this paper might seem surprising at first, as many people would not perceive much non-verbal communication when a simultaneous interpreter works nearly invisibly in his booth - a very common image of interpretation in people’s minds.
By Chantal Besson, Daria Graf, Insa Hartung, Barbara Kropfhäusser and Séverine Voisard*
Contents:
1. Introduction
2. Definition of non-verbal communication
3. Examples
3.1 Intonation3.2 Tone of voice3.3 Vocally produced noises3.4 Body posture3.5 Body gestures3.6 Facial expressions and eye movement3.7 Pause
4. Interpreting non-verbal communication
4.1 The importance of face-to-face situations4.2 The importance of a shared culture4.3 Interpreting non-verbal elements: neurophysiologic aspects4.4 The role of emotional intelligence
5. The transfer of non-verbal elements from the interpreter to the audience
5.1 Intonation5.2 Tone of voice5.3 Vocally produced noises5.4 Body posture5.5 Body gestures5.6 Facial expressions and eye movement5.7 Pause
Conclusion
Bibliography
1. Introduction
It is quite usual to forget about many aspects of non-verbal communication when hearing this notion. In fact, what comes to mind immediately are body gestures or facial expressions. However, there are many more aspects.
For this reason, chapter two begins with a definition of non-verbal communication and chapter three illustrates these definitions with examples. They also show the importance of non-verbal communication in daily life.
In the following paper, the task of the interpreter is analysed in two steps: first, the transfer of a message from the speaker to the interpreter and secondly, the transfer of this message from the interpreter to the audience.
The first step is discussed in chapter four, which deals with certain neuroscientific aspects of the process of interpreting non-verbal communication. It is also about the importance of face-to-face situations and shared culture with respect to interpreting non-verbal communication. Furthermore it is mentioned, which role emotional intelligence plays in the understanding process for non-verbal communication.
Finally, chapter five talks, with reference to the examples in chapter three, about the difficulties of non-verbal communication for the interpreter. Chapter five describes what possibilities the interpreter is given to reproduce non-verbal communication.
Sign-language, one form of non-verbal communication, is not discussed in this essay. In fact, this is a language in itself. Even if body gestures and facial expressions are part of this language, which would correspond to the definition of non-verbal communication in chapter two, it cannot be regarded as non-verbal communication. Sign-language is a system closed in itself and needs special training as well as for any other natural language. Therefore, this aspect of interpretation was not taken into account for our essay.
2. Definition of non-verbal communication
There are scores of definitions that researchers and scholars use to define non-verbal communication. Among the definitions we have studied, we chose and developed the points that seemed essential to us with respect to the frame of interpretation that is given for this essay.
Non-verbal communication consists of all the messages other than words that are used in communication. In oral communication, these symbolic messages are transferred by means of intonation, tone of voice, vocally produced noises, body posture, body gestures, facial expressions or pauses (see chapter 3. examples).
When individuals speak, they normally do not confine themselves to the mere emission of words. A great deal of meaning is conveyed by non-verbal means which always accompany oral discourse – intended or not. In other words, a spoken message is always sent on two levels simultaneously, verbal and non-verbal.
Non-verbal behaviour predates verbal communication because individuals, since birth, rely first on non-verbal means to express themselves. This innate character of non-verbal behaviour is important in communication. Even before a sentence is uttered, the hearer observes the body gestures and facial expressions of the speaker, trying to make sense of these symbolic messages. They seem to be trustable because they are mostly unconscious and part of every-day behaviour. People assume that non-verbal actions do not lie and therefore they tend to believe the non-verbal message when a verbal message contradicts it. This was proven in tests in which subjects were asked to react to sentences that appeared friendly and inviting when reading them but were spoken angrily. In short, people try to make sense of the non-verbal behaviour of others by attaching meaning to what they observe them doing. Consequently, these symbolic messages help the hearer to interpret the speaker’s intention and this indicates the importance of non-verbal communication in the field of interpretation. In daily conversations it often happens that we do not understand what the other person wants to say. Thus we ask questions such as “What do you mean by this” so that the speaker clarifies his message. The interpreter is deprived of this possibility and therefore has to fall back on other means allowing him to understand the speaker. This is the moment when non-verbal communication comes in, giving him subtle hints on how the message is to be understood.
From the speaker’s point of view, however, there are numerous functions of non-verbal behaviour – even if he or she is not aware of them. Human beings use non-verbal means to persuade or to control others, to clarify or embellish things, to stress, complement, regulate and repeat verbal expressions. They can also be used to substitute verbal expression, as this is the case with several body gestures (see 3.4. emblem). Non-verbal communication is emotionally expressive and so any discourse appealing to the receiver’s emotions has a persuasive impact.
Although many non-verbal means are innate and universal, (i.e. people in different cultures have a common understanding of these cues), the contribution of non-verbal communication to the total meaning of a discourse can be culturally determined and differ in different countries (see 3.4. use of the zero shape made by the fingers).
3. Examples
3.1. Intonation
Intonation is the way that the sender’s pitch of voice rises and falls when speaking. For example, it shows the interpreter whether the speaker expresses his or her message in the form of a question or statement. In the first case, the voice rises at the end of the phrase or the sentence and in the second case, it falls. At the same time, intonation indicates the end of an entity of information, which – in written communication – is shown by means of a comma, semicolon, point, exclamation mark or question mark. Another function of intonation is to lay emphasis on a particular word or idea, a detail that the interpreter must not fail to be aware of.
3.2. Tone of voice
The tone of voice is a means by which the speaker implies his or her attitude to the message. It is also a means by which he seeks a reaction from the hearer. In a political debate, for instance, the tone of voice is likely to be rousing, whereas on television the daily news is communicated in a more factual tone. Other examples of tone of voice are: aggressive, critical, nervous, disappointed, monotonous, friendly, enthusiastic, vivid, persuasive, etc.
3.3. Vocally produced noises
Spoken discourse can be accompanied by vocally produced noises that are not regarded as part of language, though they help in communication for the expression of attitude or feeling. Such non-lexical expressions differ in important respects from language: They are much more similar in form and meaning, i.e. universal, as a whole in contrast to the great diversity of language. Vocally produced noises include laughter, shouts, screams of joy, fear, pain, as well as conventional expressions of disgust, triumph, etc., traditionally spelled “ugh!”, “ha ha!”…
3.4. Body posture
Body posture is the bearing or the position of the speaker’s body. It is a more or less stable state and thus not to be confused with body gestures which are movements. Body posture can be characteristic and assumed for a special purpose or it can correspond to the normal expectations in the context of a particular situation. Obviously one can be lying down, seating, or standing. Normally, these are not the elements of posture that convey messages. However, when the speaker is slouched or erect, his or her legs crossed or arms folded, such postures convey a degree of formality or relaxation. Once more, they can also transfer symbolic messages on the orator’s attitude or intention with regard to the message.
3.5. Body gestures
A body gesture is a movement made with a limb, especially the hands, to express, confirm, emphasize or back up the speaker’s attitude or intention. This non-verbal activity is regularly used in oral discourse. If a body act requires no verbal accompaniment, it is called an “emblem”. Examples are: hand signals such as waving good-bye, the “V” for victory sign or the “high five” signalling victory. While some emblems, for example a clenched fist, have universal meaning, there are others that are idiosyncratic or culturally conditioned. The use of the zero shape made by the fingers, for instance, does not mean the same thing in different cultures. Standing for “OK” in the UK, it may be a vulgar expression in South American cultures, sometimes embarrassingly so… Body gestures are always perceived and interpreted together with facial expressions.
3.6. Facial expressions and eye movement
Facial expressions are dynamic features which communicate the speaker’s attitude, emotions, intentions, and so on. The face is the primary source of emotions. During oral communication, facial expressions change continually and are constantly monitored and interpreted by the receiver. Examples are: a smile, frown, raised eyebrow, yawn or sneer.
Eye movement is a key part of facial behaviour because the eyes are invariably involved in facial displays. The different forms are observed to be cross-cultural. The frequency of eye contact may suggest either interest or boredom or may even betray dishonesty. The direct stare of the speaker can show candour or openness. Downward glances are generally associated with modesty; eyes rolled upwards are conveyed as a sign of fatigue. Researchers have discovered that certain facial areas reveal our emotional state better than others. For example the eyes tend to show happiness, sadness or even surprise. The lower face can also express happiness or surprise; a smile, for instance, can communicate friendliness or cooperation. As for the lower face, brows and forehead are known to reveal mostly anger.
3.7. Pause
A pause can have two different functions:
1. It can be a brief suspension of the voice to indicate the limits and relations of sentences and their parts. A pause then assumes a similar function in oral discourse to intonation (see chapter 3.1.).
2. It can consist of a temporary vocal inaction revealing the speaker’s uncertainty, hesitation, tension or uneasiness. In this context, a pause can also be judgmental by indicating favour or disfavour, agreement or disagreement. Consequently, the non-verbal cue of a pause can give rise to problems when interpreting it because its meaning can vary considerably. It can have a positive or negative influence on the process of communication.
4. Interpreting non-verbal communication
It has been stated that non-verbal communication plays a role in every kind of discourse, and in professional interpretation, it is crucial as well. This chapter discusses the following problems: in what situations and to what extent can the professional interpreter make sense of non-verbal communication? Where exactly in the brain is this interpretation of non-verbal communication located? For this chapter, websites were studied, since they are often more recent than books. Similar to the act of translation, the act of interpretation is influenced by many factors. This is why this chapter tries to give a different view by mentioning aspects from the fields of sociology, neurophysiology and psychology,
4.1. The importance of face-to-face situations
Non-verbal communication does not only play a role in face-to-face situations. It is also important in mediated communication, for example, as this is the case for telephone interpreting, where the interpreter does not see the speaker. Non-verbal communication is also crucial for every other kind of professional interpreting where the speaker cannot be seen. It is important, because even in such situations the voice itself can express non-verbal paralinguistic messages. Those messages, for example, are intonation, tone of voice, vocally produced noises or pause (see chapter 3). Then again, it has to be considered that non-verbal, communicative acts might only be fully expressed and observed in face-to-face situations, where rhetorical sensitivity is accompanied by visually perceivable emotions. As a result, this chapter will mainly consider face-to-face situations.
4.2. The importance of a shared culture
The differences between the use of verbal elements and the use of non-verbal elements can be described as the difference between doing and communicating about doing. It is believed that non-verbal communication is continuous, while verbal communication is discontinuous. Furthermore, as we have seen, verbal activity never stands alone – it is always joined by non-verbal action. Non-verbal action can be dynamic and spontaneous, but usually it is patterned by the respective culture. A successful interpretation of non-verbal elements conveyed by the speaker requires the same understanding of the symbols shared between interpreter and speaker. That means, for the understanding and for the correct interpretation of an utterance and its simultaneously conveyed non-verbal elements, it is crucial that there is a shared knowledge of the rules and codes of non-verbal communication, which are embedded in the participants’ culture. Therefore, if the participants have a shared understanding of non-verbal meanings, the interpreter can also predict the non-verbal action of the speaker. Predictability is extremely important for interpreters. That is, thanks to the interpreters’ unconscious or conscious knowledge of the culturally determined non-verbal elements, they are able to predict what exactly is going to be said, or are able to detect the meaning in an early stage of the discourse. Thus, predictability of meaning in the field of interpretation is not only a result of the interpreter’s general culture, but also a result of his ability to interpret non-verbal communication.
4.3. Interpreting non-verbal elements: neurophysiologic aspects
What is the biological explanation for the process of interpreting non-verbal elements, for the interpretation of gestures or other signs, as well as for the supposition that this process happens even before the act of interpreting utterances? It has been proved that emotional areas of the brain fire up even as cognitive areas fire up when discussing emotional topics. That means that the emotional areas of an interpreter’s brain will work as well as the cognitive areas, when the interpreter listens to an angry speaker who raises his voice. Of course, “good” interpreters should not show emotions and must remain impartial. However, it is clear that they are not machines, but human beings who also feel emotions and who can detect those emotions which are embedded in non-verbal communication. But how do human beings feel emotions? What are the neurophysiologic conditions for this process? The right hemisphere of the brain is also called the emotional brain, or limbic system. It is the oldest part of the human’s brain, the size of a walnut. The prefrontal cortex is a part of the neocortex, the so-called thinking brain. The neocortex is responsible for analytic processes, comparisons or considerations, for problem-solving, planning, organization and rational thought. It also processes emotionally relevant stimuli. Both prefrontal cortex and neocortex developed during the process of human evolution and are therefore younger than the limbic system. The prefrontal cortex as well as the neocortex interact with the evolutionary older limbic system. Part of the limbic system is called the amygdale.
The process of understanding non-verbal and verbal elements can be described as follows: Neural pathways bring information to the brain through the senses. Information entering through eyes or ears goes first to the thalamus, to the large part of the limbic system. The thalamus could be compared to a mail sorter. It decides to which parts of the brain to send the information. If the incoming information is emotional, the thalamus sends out two signals – the first to the amygdale and the second to the neocortex. As a result, the emotional brain, the limbic system, receives the information first. For the biological aspect of a species’ survival, here human beings, this point is very important: hypothetically, in the event of a crisis (attack of a wild animal, confrontation with an enemy etc.) the interpreter could react (flee or fight) before the thinking brain has even received the information and had a chance to weigh the options. Today, the interpreter must not fear to be confronted with such dangerous attacks or confrontations. Today’s interpreter can generally react in a “cooler” way than his or her ancestors. The amygdale and the rest of the limbic system is a remnant of times when emotions like anger or anxiety were much more useful to the survival of the species than nowadays. However, today, interpreters can be confronted with an angry speaker, on whom more or less violent body gestures can be observed (for example when he or she bangs a fist on the table). In consecutive interpretation, thanks to the limbic system, the interpreter experiences the anger first, can then analyse it, and express the message with less violent body gestures, but, with a severe tone of voice.
4.4. The role of emotional intelligence
The ability of interpreting the meaning of the discourse, the messages that the speaker truly wanted to convey, does not only concern the notion of Intelligence Quotient, but also the Emotional Quotient. The Emotional Quotient stands for emotional intelligence. People who are emotionally intelligent know their strong points and weaknesses. They are able to motivate themselves and others in negative situations. They can work in teams, have leadership-capacities, a good management of time and resources, and most important, they can detect and understand their own as well as other peoples’ emotions. The Emotional Quotient and the Intelligence Quotient are two different notions. However, in the act of interpreting, they join together. Thus, the interpretive process is not only a rational, cognitive activity, but also involves emotions, which are associated with ideas. Of course, interpreters can vary in their abilities to interpret human behaviour. It can be said that sometimes they lack emotional intelligence. Though, considering that people are deeply influenced by psychological, social, cultural processes, by gender, ethnicity and age, as well as by the media, interpreters should be aware of the hidden, inner dynamics that influence behaviours. Those who are able to think critically and to investigate the behaviour of the speaker are able to ferret out the nature of those symbols.
However, communicative behaviour can be studied and learned. Interpreters can become increasingly skilled at interpreting human behaviour simply by keen observation. Furthermore, the more interpreters are mindful and pay attention to details and nuances in behaviour, to gestures, intonation, facial expressions, and body signals, the more they will detect the true meanings of the speaker’s discourse.
5. The transfer of non-verbal elements from the interpreter to the audience
As mentioned above, non-verbal communication is emotionally expressive as people from all cultures smile, cry, caress, or then repress their emotions through body or facial action. Many emotional expressions seem to be displayed universally. However, non-verbal behaviour varies from culture to culture, which means it is specific to each culture and may be interpreted differently.
What reactions do these non-verbal elements evoke among an audience when being transferred by an interpreter? Referring to the examples of non-verbal communication listed in chapter 3, the following text deals with the transfer and reception of such elements with special regard to cultural characteristics.
5.1. Intonation
Ideally, interpreters should reproduce the same intonation as the speaker. However, intonation is not always used correctly. For instance, the fact that simultaneous interpreters do not know how the speaker is going to proceed in his or her speech may lead the interpreters’ intonation to indicate their state of expectation. In that case, the voice tends to go up at the end of a sentence. In many languages, a rising intonation is a sign of surprise or a question, but when being used systematically by the interpreter it becomes very difficult for the audience to listen and understand where sentences begin and end, or to distinguish what is affirmative and what is interrogative.
Furthermore, interpreters should not emphasize words where there is no need for it. Especially in rather vacuous texts, the actual emptiness of the text is highlighted by stressing too many words and the interpreter will come across as a poor public speaker.
5.2. Tone of voice
The interpreters’ choice of the adequate tone of voice can give rise to serious problems. They can only be guided, in each case, by their tact and intuition. For example, an overreaction to being under pressure might manifest itself by an exaggerated attempt to sound calm. This can lead to a monotonous interpretation that sounds totally bored or even supercilious and will probably fail to communicate, as it might be rather irritating for the audience.
5.3. Vocally produced noises
Some speakers make often use of vocally produced noises such as “eh” when they hesitate between two words or two sentences. Yet the interpreters should bear in mind that the use of these noises is not allowed in all languages. Therefore, they should only transmit what is part of the message.
5.4. Body posture
The simultaneous interpreters might not be able to reproduce the speaker’s body postures (for example, due to the positioning of the booth) whereas interpreters that are visible to the audience may do so. However, one must take into account that the audience usually looks at the speaker while listening to a simultaneous interpretation. In this case, there is a rather small need for the interpreter for transferring body gestures.
5.5. Body gestures
Body gestures can only be transferred if the interpreter is visible for the audience (see chapter 5.4.). Body gestures vary considerably according to cultural regions. A speaker, for example, agrees on a proposal - which is reproduced by the simultaneous interpreter - but shakes his or her head several times. This might be a sign of consent in the speaker’s culture. However, a European audience will consider this gesture as a sign of refusal and is probably confused not knowing, which information might be correct – the positive one (by the interpreter) or the apparent negative one (visually). If the simultaneous interpreters could express themselves visually, they would support the verbal reproduction of consent by nodding their head.
It is generally not recommended that interpreters imitate or exaggerate (striking) gestures as they run the risk to make fools of themselves.
5.6. Facial expressions and eye movement
Likewise, body gestures, facial expressions and eye movement differ from culture to culture. A speaker from a far Eastern country may report on a rather depressing subject but at the same time may be smiling or even laughing. Consequently, a European audience will be puzzled by these apparent contradictions. Once again, simultaneous interpreters are limited in their opportunities of cultural transfer for they cannot communicate visually in their booth and clarify the situation.
5.7. Pause
Appropriate pauses do add to the meaning of a speech and give interpreters time to gather their thoughts in order to provide a better interpretation. However, some interpreters may feel under pressure to keep up a continuous flow of sound. The interpreters think the audience will become impatient and lose confidence in them because the hearers seem to be missing something. Indeed, there are some people who encourage this belief, who turn round and frown or make gestures indicating they feel their headphones are no longer working if they do not hear something for a few seconds.
Conclusion
Non-verbal communication is not only crucial in a plain daily communication situation but also for the interpreter. Non-verbal communication can take various forms, each of which illustrates or replaces a certain part of the verbal communication. It includes many more elements than one might think at first.
When interpreters are in a working situation where the audience will not see them, non-verbal communication can represent a problem. The audience might even be tempted to believe that the interpreters have not done a good job.
In order to be able to work properly, interpreters need to make sense of non-verbal cues. This is only possible because a special part of our brain deals with the emotional part of the message. Not only intelligence but also emotional intelligence is needed for interpreting non-verbal elements.
Whether non-verbal communication supports the interpreters in their task or presents a difficulty, it will always play an important role.

Welcome to the National Communications System !

President Bush Appoints Two Members to NSTACWashington D.C. December 29, 2008 - President George W. Bush last week announced his intent to appoint two new members to the President’s National Security Telecommunications Advisory Committee (NSTAC)..

GETS, WPS Subscriber Advisory for Inaugural WeekendArlington, VA. December 22, 2008 - With the Presidential Inauguration less than a month away and an estimated 2 to 4 million people expected to attend Inaugural events in the nation’s capital from January 17-20, 2009, the National Communications System (NCS) is advising all subscribers of the Government Emergency Telecommunications Service (GETS) and Wireless Priority Service (WPS) to test their subscriptions and verify their telephone numbers before the Inaugural weekend.

President Appoints Bank of America’s Gordon to NSTACWashington D.C. October 24, 2008 - President George W. Bush yesterday announced his intent to appoint Marc D. Gordon, Chief Technology Officer for Bank of America, to
the President’s National Security Telecommunications Advisory Committee

NCS Installs New SHARES Antenna to Enhance High Frequency Emergency RadioArlington, VA. October 03, 2008 - A new antenna – installed last weekend in Arlington -- will improve high frequency radio operations for one of the National Communications System’s (NCS) priority communications programs, allowing the NCS to better monitor and participate in backup emergency radio communications in the event of national emergencies

Picture archiving and communication system

In medical imaging, picture archiving and communication systems (PACS) are computers or networks dedicated to the storage, retrieval, distribution and presentation of images. The medical images are stored in an independent format. The most common format for image storage is DICOM (Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine).
Contents
1 Types of images
2 Uses
3 Architecture
4 Image Backup
5 Integration
6 DICOM Viewers
7 History
8 References
9 See also
10 External links
Types of images
Most PACSs handle images from various medical imaging instruments, including ultrasound, magnetic resonance, PET, computed tomography, endoscopy, mammograms, etc. (see DICOM Application areas).Uses
PACS has two main uses:
Hard copy replace: PACS replaces hard-copy based means of managing medical images, such as film archives. With the decreasing price of digital storage, PACSs provide a growing cost and space advantage over film archives in addition to the instant access to prior images at the same institution. *Digital copies are referred to as Soft-copy.
Remote access: It expands on the possibilities of conventional systems by providing capabilities of off-site viewing and reporting (distance education, telediagnosis). It enables practitioners in different physical locations to access the same information simultaneously for teleradiology.
PACS is offered by virtually all the major medical imaging equipment manufacturers, medical IT companies and many independent software companies. Basic PACS software can be found free on the internet.
One difficult area in PACS is interpreting the DICOM image format. DICOM does not fully specify the metadata tags stored with images to annotate and describe them, so vendors of medical imaging equipment have latitude to create DICOM-compliant files that differ in the meaning and representation of this metadata. A feature common to most PACS is to read the metadata from all the images into a central database, allowing the PACS user to retrieve all images with a common feature no matter the originating instrument. The differences between vendors' DICOM implementations make this a difficult task.Architecture
Typically a PACS network consists of a central server that stores a database containing the images connected to one or more clients via a LAN or a WAN which provide or utilize the images.
More and more PACS include web-based interfaces to utilize the Internet as their means of communication, usually via VPN (Virtual Private Network) or SSL (Secure Sockets Layer). The software is loaded via JavaScript or Java.
Definitions vary, but most claim that for a system to be truly web based, each individual image should have its own URL.[citation needed]
Client workstations can use local peripherals for scanning image films into the system, printing image films from the system and interactive display of digital images. PACS workstations offer means of manipulating the images (crop, rotate, zoom, window, level and others).
Modern radiology equipment and modalities feed patient images directly to the PACS in digital form. For backwards compatibility, most hospital imaging departments and radiology practices employ a film digitizer.
PACS image backup is a critical, but sometimes overlooked, part of the PACS Architecture (see below). HIPAA requires that backup copies of patient images be made in case of image loss from the PACS. There are several methods of backing up the images, but they typically involve automatically sending copies of the images to a separate computer for storage, preferably off-site.
Image Backup
Digital medical images are typically stored on a Picture Archiving and Communication System (PACS) for retrieval. Computer images are fragile and can be lost very quickly. It is important (and required in the USA by the Security Rule's Administrative Safeguards section of HIPAA) that facilities have a backup copy of the images.
While each facility is different, the goal in image backup is to make it automatic and as easy to administer as possible. The hope is that the copies won't ever be needed. But, as with other disaster planning, they need to be available if needed.
Ideally, copies of images should be streamed off-site as they are created. (If using the internet, the Security Rule's Technical Safeguards section of HIPAA requires that the images be encrypted during transmission.) Depending on bandwidth and image volume, this may not be practical. Other options include removable media (hard drives, DVDs or other media that can hold many patients' images) and/or separate computers. These copies need to be protected.
As hard drive and computer prices continue to fall, RAID is losing acceptance as a backup mechanism. RAID doesn't backup the images to a fully redundant device, but rather writes some redundant information on multiple drives within the same computer. This added complexity brings its own vulnerabilities.The redundant data written on RAID is subject to the same virus, hardware or software problems as the original image, except that it is protected from hard drive failure.
In the event that it is necessary to reconstruct a PACS from the backup images, the backup system should be able to turned into a "super modality" that simply blasts all of its images back to the PACS.This will allow the PACS to continue receiving current images while also rebuilding its historical images at the same time.
Typical search phrases for more information are "PACS Backup" and "DICOM BackupA full PACS should provide a single point of access for images and their associated data (i.e. it should support multiple modalities). It should also interface with existing hospital information systems: Hospital information system (HIS) and Radiology Information System (RIS).
Interfacing between multiple systems provides a more consistent and more reliable dataset:
Less risk of entering an incorrect patient ID for a study – modalities that support DICOM worklists can retrieve identifying patient information (patient name, patient number, accession number) for upcoming cases and present that to the technologist, preventing data entry errors during acquisition. Once the acquisition is complete, the PACS can compare the embedded image data with a list of scheduled studies from RIS, and can flag a warning if the image data does not match a scheduled study.
Data saved in the PACS can be tagged with unique patient identifiers (such as a social security number or NHS number) obtained from HIS. Providing a robust method of merging datasets from multiple hospitals, even where the different centers use different ID systems internally.
An interface can also improve workflow patterns:
When a study has been reported by a radiologist the PACS can mark it as read. This avoids needless double-reading. The report can be attached to the images and be viewable via a single interface.
Improved use of online storage and nearline storage in the image archive. The PACS can obtain lists of appointments and admissions in advance, allowing images to be pre-fetched from nearline storage (for example, tape libraries or DVD jukeboxes) onto online disk storage (RAID array).
Recognition of the importance of integration has led a number of suppliers to develop fully integrated RIS/PACS. These may offer a number of advanced features:
Dictation of reports can be integrated into a single system. The recording is automatically sent to a transcriptionist's workstation for typing, but it can also be made available for access by physicians, avoiding typing delays for urgent results, or retained in case of typing error.
Provides a single tool for quality control and audit purposes. Rejected images can be tagged, allowing later analysis (as may be required under radiation protection legislation). Workloads and turn-around time can be reported automatically for management purposes.

[edit] DICOM Viewers
There are several DICOM Viewers available both free and proprietary. Some of the DICOM Viewers include: DICOM Works, Osirix, SureVistaVision , UniPACS, Syngo Imaging, VRRender, ImageJ and MicroDicom. They are designed to directly connect with any PACS to provide extended viewing technology for the workstations.

History
The principles of PACS were first discussed at meetings of radiologists in 1982. Various people are credited with the coinage of the term PACS. Cardiovascular radiologist Dr Andre Duerinckx reported in 1983 that he had first used the term in 1981.Dr Samuel Dwyer, though, credits Dr Judith M. Prewitt for introducing the term.
Dr Harold Glass, a medical physicist working in London in the early 1990s secured UK Government funding and managed the project over many years which transformed Hammersmith Hospital in London as the first filmless hospital in the United Kingdom.Dr Glass passed away a few months after the project came live but is credited with being one of the pioneers of PACS.

Blue Angels in Pensacola

Today the Blue Angels are performing in Pensacola, over Pensacola Beach. Reports yesterday said it is harder for them to perform over water, because there are fewer “marks” to help them orient themselves.

Father and Son Find Viking Treasure

A father and son in England, who spend their weekends treasure hunting stumbled across a treasure buried in a farmer’s field, worth an estimated $2 million. Buried more than 1000 years ago, the treasure has remained hidden in the ground all these years.What I don’t understand is why they believe it was buried by the Vikings, rather than buried by someone trying to hide the wealth FROM the Vikings?